Biodiversity

International Day for Biological Diversity (May 22)
The theme: Biodiversity: Life Insurance for our Changing World.

The United Nations has announced May 22, the International Day for Biological Diversity, to increase understanding and awareness of biodiversity issues. Biodiversity is the source of the essential goods and ecological services that constitute the source of life for all. The world is changing faster than ever before. Growing human populations and expanding consumption are placing great pressure on biological Diversity. This year's theme for IBD, in addition to providing the physical conditions for all life, biodiversity also plays an important role in protecting life and making it resilient to the pressures brought about by change

What is biodiversity?
Biodiversity is the variety of life: the different plants, animals and micro-organisms, their genes and the ecosystems of which they are a part. Biodiversity" is often defined as the variety of all forms of life, from genes to species, through to the broad scale of ecosystems (for a list of variants on this simple definition see Gaston 1996). "Biodiversity" was coined as a contraction of "biological diversity" in 1985, but the new term arguably has taken on a meaning and import all its own. A symposium in 1986, and the follow-up book BioDiversity (Wilson 1988), edited by biologist E. O. Wilson, heralded the popularity of this concept. Ten years later, Takacs (1996, p.39) described its ascent this way: "in 1988, biodiversity did not appear as a keyword in Biological Abstracts, and biological diversity appeared once. In 1993, biodiversity appeared seventy-two times, and biological diversity nineteen times". Ten years further on, it would be hard to count how many times "biodiversity" is used every day by scientists, policy-makers, and others. While the history of this term is relatively short (compare it to other terms covered in this encyclopedia), it already has raised important, distinctive, philosophical issues. Some of these are entangled in the very definition of "biodiversity", an issue treated in the first sections below. A challenge is the reconciliation of process-based and elements-based perspectives on biodiversity. Overall, the major issue for Biodiversity is how its conservation may be integrated with other needs of society.

Biodiversity is often considered at three levels: ecosystem diversity, species diversity and genetic diversity. The conservation of biological diversity is a core requirement of ecologically sustainable development. Biological resources are essential for our well-being, primarily because they provide clean air and water, fertile soils, and food. Consequently, biodiversity issues relate to most aspects of the environment and its use by people. Ecosystems in good working order maintain air and water quality, regulate the climate, recycle nutrients, maintain soil fertility and decompose wastes. They also help to regulate pests and diseases, and provide food and other raw materials.

Bio-diversity hotspots
Much of the Earth's species diversity is concentrated into a few relatively small areas. Twenty-five regions have been identified which together cover only 1.4% of the Earth's land surface but contain nearly half of all plant species and a third of all terrestrial vertebrate species. All are under pressure from human activities. Much of the Earth's species diversity is concentrated into a few relatively small areas. Twenty-five regions have been identified which together cover only 1.4% of the Earth's land surface but contain nearly half of all plant species and a third of all terrestrial vertebrate species. All are under pressure from human activities

Loss of biodiversity
The variety and variability among living organisms is known as "Bio-diversity". India is home to 33% of the lifeforms found in the world and is one among the 12 megadiverse countries of the world. The rich diversity can be attributed to the different geographical zones, tropical climate and its position. The biological wealth of India is estimated to include 45,000 plants and 65,000 animal species. 60% of this wealth can be found in the Western Ghats, which is one of the hotspots of diversity in India, and in the marine habitats. Protection and conservation of the endemic and rare species through gene banks and ex-situ methods have gained importance. In-situ conservation through protected areas is practiced in India. There are 89 national parks, 504 sanctuaries and 10 biosphere reserves in India. Conservation programmes such as Project Tiger, Project Elephant and crocodile rehabilitation programmes are being carried out successfully. India is also a signatory to the international conventions like Convention of International Trade on Endangered Species (CITES) and Convention of Migratory Species (CMS) which aim at conserving biodiversity.
The reasons for loss of biodiversity in India is habitat alteration, poaching, over harvesting, construction of dams, converting forest lands to agricultural lands and natural calamities.

Himalaya
The Himalaya Hotspot is home to the world's highest mountains, including Mt. Everest. The mountains rise abruptly, resulting in a diversity of ecosystems that range from alluvial grasslands and subtropical broadleaf forests to alpine meadows above the tree line. Vascular plants have even been recorded at more than 6,000 meters. The hotspot is home to important populations of numerous large birds and mammals, including vultures, tigers, elephants, rhinos and wild water buffalo.

California Floristic Province
California's extensive area and great diversity of habitats means it has a very large range of animal and plant species, which includes the world's largest redwood trees.

The California Floristic Province covers 70% of the state and spreads into Oregon and northern Mexico. It is one of the few Mediterranean-type climates in the world and is home to populations of the California condor, the giant salamander and the mountain lion. Over 2,000 of the plant species that grow in the province occur nowhere else in the world. But urban and agricultural development is eating into the area, especially along the central and southern coasts of California. At present, 9.7% of the total land area of the California Floristic Province is protected. It contains 12 threatened species and two endangered ones.

Central America
The forests of central America contain a wealth of species, including jaguar, sloths, morpho butterflies and 24,000 plant species. Mexico is trying to protect monarch butterflies.The region is also a vital migration corridor for many birds, and Mexico is the wintering ground of the endangered monarch butterfly, which flies from North America to Mexico's oyamel fir forests. Today, only about 20% (231,000 sq km) of the original forests remain in a relatively natural state - and those are under threat. Some conservation efforts are under way, however. The Mexican authorities are cracking down on illegal logging in the hope of protecting the millions of migrating butterflies.

Caucasus
The Caucasus hotspot covers an area of over 500,000 sq km between the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea, and includes parts of Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Russia, Iran and Turkey. It contains more than twice the animal diversity found in adjacent areas in Europe and Asia. The conservation organisation WWF has named the Caucasus as a large herbivore hotspot. Eleven species of large herbivore, as well as five species of large carnivore, are found over a relatively small area. Conservation is problematic in the region because the hotspot straddles so many nations.

Polynesia and Micronesia
Polynesia and Micronesia represent over 1,000 islands scattered across 21.6 million sq km of the southern Pacific Ocean. The region includes ecosystems ranging from lush forests to mangroves and savannahs. High levels of species diversity exist because of the way species have evolved in isolation from each other on different islands. But the isolated island habitats mean species are less resistant to introduced predators and other human pressures. Human occupation in the last 200 years has seen 22 bird species become extinct. Among the 88 threatened species are the Hawaiian crow, the Samoa flying fox and the Fijian ground frog

Atlantic Forest, Brazil
The Atlantic Forest is less well known than the Amazon rainforest but it, too, is a hot-spot for biodiversity. The forest makes up 13% of Brazil's territory and is the third largest major vegetation formation in the country after Amazonia and the Cerrado (an area of woodland savannah in north-east Brazil). Many of the species found there are unique. Seventy-two of the 620 bird species are thought to be endemic; 60 of 2,000 reptiles, 253 of 280 amphibians and 160 of 261 mammals.

There is great concern about the golden lion tamarin. But the Atlantic Forest, shrinking due to deforestation, is now less than 10% of its original size and many of its species are becoming endangered. Primates are particularly affected - they represent nine of the 10 critically endangered mammals found in the Atlantic Forest. There is also great concern about the golden lion tamarin, whose numbers in the wild are estimated at around 500

East Africa
Much of East Africa's biodiversity is concentrated in the Eastern Arc mountains and coastal forests of Tanzania and Kenya. The Eastern Arc mountain chain is a series of heavily forested isolated peaks, where there are 1,500 plant species and 50 endemic reptiles. Because of this density of species, the region is thought to be the hotspot in the world most likely to suffer the greatest plant and vertebrate extinction. Agriculture and the encroachment of human development, along with logging, are the greatest threats to biodiversity in the region. Several species of colobus monkey are endangered along with three species of sunbird. Only about 2,000 sq km or 6.7% of the original hotspot remains unspoiled.

Madagascar
Madagascar and the Indian Ocean islands pack a great deal of biodiversity into a relatively small area. Deforestation is putting many species under strain in Madagascar. But deforestation is putting many species under great strain. Madagascar is thought to have more critically endangered and endangered primates than anywhere else in the world. The island has lost about 90% of its original vegetation, placing many species in great danger.

Western Ghats, India
The Western Ghats are a mountain range that runs along the western coast of India. The mountains cover an area of about 160,000 sq km stretching from the country's southern tip to Gujarat in the north. Of the 372 species of mammal found in India, 63 are in the Western Ghats. Sixteen of these are endemic. Faced with enormous population pressure, the lush mountains are at risk of a biodiversity crisis. Important populations of Asian elephants, Indian tigers, and the endangered lion-tailed macaque are threatened as agriculture and logging intensify.

Indonesia
Indonesia has around 500 species of mammal, which is second only to Brazil. It is also in the world's top five countries for plant diversity, with an estimated 38,000 higher plant species. But illegal or uncontrolled logging is sweeping across the country creating a possible extinction crisis. Critically endangered animals include the Javan rhinoceros, the Sumatran orang-utan and the silvery gibbon, which is endemic to Indonesia. Although Indonesia has been criticised for excessive logging, timber is a major source of revenue and supports millions of people.

South-west Australia
The native forests of south-west Australia retain only 10% of their original 310,000 sq km of vegetation and yet they contain over 5,000 plant species and nearly 500 vertebrate species. Despite early deforestation, the remaining forests are now well protected. Amongst the unique creatures living in the area is the swamp turtle, which is thought to be the most threatened fresh water turtle in the world. The hotspot is also home to the honey-possum and the red-capped parrot.
http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots

Issues and Threats to Bio Diversity
Issues, Threats, Population Growth and Resource Consumption, Global Warming , Habitat Conversion and Sprawl , Exotic Species Invasions , Domino effects , Pollution , Climate change , Overhunting / Exploitation , Habitat loss, degradation, fragmentation , Thinking Point and Environmental Degradation

Issues : Condition
The world's biological diversity has co-evolved with human culture. Humanity has applied growing knowledge and skills to order and manipulate nature to meet changing human needs. In this process, people have hunted, fished, and gathered species for food, fuel, fiber and shelter. They have eliminated competing or threatening species, domesticated plants and animals, cut forests, used fire to alter habitats, and recently even significantly changed hydrological and geochemical cycles. As a result, the landscape and, to a lesser extent, the sea, today reflect human culture.

At a time when humanity's needs for productive biological resources are greater than ever before, we are witnessing the irreplaceable loss of the world's fundamental capital stock -- its species and genes -- and the deterioration of ecosystems' ability to meet human needs. As species disappear, humanity loses today's foods, medicines, and industrial products, as well as tomorrow's. As genetic diversity erodes, our capacity to maintain and enhance agricultural, forest, and livestock productivity decreases. And with the degradation of ecosystems, we lose the valuable serves that natural and semi-natural systems provide.
http://biodiv.wri.org/

Threats to biodiversity
Extinction is a natural event and, from a geological perspective, routine. We now know that most species that have ever lived have gone extinct. The average rate over the past 200 million years is 1-2 species per million species present per year. The average duration of a species is 1-10 million years (based on the last 200 million years). There have also been several episodes of mass extinction, when many taxa representing a wide array of life forms have gone extinct in the same blink of geological time.

In the modern era, due to human actions, species and ecosystems are threatened with destruction to an extent rarely seen in Earth history. Probably only during the handful of mass extinction events have so many species been threatened, in so short a time.

What are these human actions that threaten biodiversity? There are many ways to conceive of these; let's consider two.

First, we can attribute the loss of species and ecosystems to the accelerating transformation of the Earth by a growing human population. As the human population passes the 6 billion mark, we have transformed, degraded or destroyed roughly half of the word's forests. We appropriate roughly half of the world's net primary productivity for human use. We appropriate most available fresh water, and we harvest virtually all of the available productivity of the oceans. It is little wonder that species are disappearing and ecosystems are being destroyed.
http://www.fathom.com/course/21701785/session2.html

Population Growth and Resource Consumption
With six billion people living on Earth, and more arriving every day, basic human needs for fresh water and fuel are making unprecedented demands on our global and local ecosystems. Beyond the necessities of survival, there is increasing demand throughout the globe for more material goods and services. Americans consume more resources per capita than people in any other nation on Earth. As other nations strive to increase material wealth and the comforts and conveniences we take for granted, the strain on natural resources and biodiversity will only increase.
http://www.biodiversityproject.org/bdpopulation.htm

Habitat Conversion and Sprawl
The single greatest threat to biodiversity around the globe is the loss of natural communities to development and agriculture. Between 1992 and 1997 in the U.S., 16 million acres of forest, cropland, and open space were converted to urban and other uses. Since the European settlement of North America, 27 different types of natural communities have declined by 98% or more in size. The destruction of previously intact ecosystems results in a loss of habitat for multitudes of species and breaks down an ecosystem's ability to function.

Sprawled development is a leading cause of habitat loss and thus biodiversity loss. Sprawl also exacerbates air and water pollution, both of which degrade environments and further reduce biodiversity. New construction often increases erosion of land cleared for development. This in turn increases stream siltation. As the land area for natural ecosystems shrinks, there is less natural capacity to filter pollutants and detoxify waters and less capacity to cycle nutrients and compost organic wastes. Thus, as sprawl increases, species and ecosystem services decrease.

Exotic Species Invasions
Plants and animals that are not native to an ecosystem can wreak havoc on the naturally occurring species within that system. Exotics often out-compete native species for resources and occupy much of the available habitat. Purple loosestrife and kudzu are good examples. Other exotics prey on native species or usurp or destroy their habitats. For example, brown snakes have eradicated virtually all bird life on Guam, and zebra mussels prey on and replace native mussel beds. The impact of exotics on agriculture, fisheries, and other aspects of our economy is estimated in the billions of dollars each year; the impact on biodiversity is immeasurable.

Invasion of non-native species is an important and often overlooked cause of extinctions. The African Great Lakes--Victoria, Malawi and Tanganyika--are famous for their great diversity of endemic species, termed "species flocks," of cichlid fishes. In Lake Victoria, a single, exotic species, the Nile Perch, has become established and may cause the extinction of most of the native species, by simply eating them all. It was a purposeful introduction for subsistence and sports fishing, and a great disaster.

Of all documented extinctions since 1600, introduced species appear to have played a role in at least half. The clue is the disproportionate number of species lost from islands: some 93 percent of 30 documented extinctions of species and sub-species of amphibians and reptiles, 93 percent of 176 species and sub-species of land and freshwater birds, but only 27 percent of 114 species and subspecies of mammals. Why are island species so vulnerable, and why is this evidence of the role of non-indigenous species? Islands are laboratories for evolution.
http://www.fathom.com/course/21701785/session2.html

Domino effects
Domino effects occur when the removal of one species (an extinction event) or the addition of one species (an invasion event) affects the entire biological system. Domino effects are especially likely when two or more species are highly interdependent, or when the affected species is a "keystone" species, meaning that it has strong connections to many other species.

A keystone species is one whose influence on others is disproportionately great. A seminal study of marine invertebrates in the rocky intertidal region of Washington State found that the top predator, a starfish, facilitated the coexistence of many other invertebrates by selectively consuming mussels, which otherwise would crowd out other organisms. Thus a keystone species is one whose presence or absence both directly and indirectly influences other species through food web connectivity. Contrary to what some may think, not all species are "keystones", and it requires careful experimental studies to identify keystone species.

Overhunting / Exploitation
Over-hunting, over-fishing, and industrial-scale "mining" of natural resources have placed many species in peril. Over-harvesting of regional fisheries has driven several fish species to the brink of extinction-- from the once-fabled cod fisheries of Georges Banks to the abalone stocks in California-- and reduced the overall diversity of marine life.

Industrial-scale logging, for wood products and timber, destroys or fragments millions of acres of forests each year, along with the habitat they provide to many uniquely adapted species, such as the endangered red cockaded woodpecker, which lives in heavily exploited long-leaf pine forests in the Southeast US. Over-hunting and illegal trade in endangered species are a prime threat to their survival. For instance, box turtles in the US are illegally collected and exported as pets, and, they die in the tens of thousands each year. These species are very slow to reproduce, and, in some populations, poaching has resulted in too few hatchlings surviving to offset adult mortality.

Over-hunting has been a significant cause of the extinction of hundreds of species and the endangerment of many more, such as whales and many African large mammals. Most extinctions over the past several hundred years are mainly due to over-harvesting for food, fashion, and profit. Commercial hunting, both legal and illegal (poaching), is the principal threat. The snowy egret, passenger pigeon, and heath hen are US examples. At US $16,000 per pound, and US $40,000 to US $100,000 per horn, it is little wonder that some rhino species are down to only a few thousand individuals, with only a slim hope of survival in the wild. The recent expansion of road networks into previously remote tropical forests enables the bushmeat trade, resulting in what some conservationsist describe as "empty forests" as more and more wild animals are shot for food.

The pet and decorative plant trade falls within this commercial hunting category, and includes a mix of legal and illegal activities. The annual trade is estimated to be at least US $5 billion, with perhaps one-quarter to one-third of it illegal. Sport or recreational hunting causes no endangerment of species where it is well regulated, and may help to bring back a species from the edge of extinction. Many wildlife managers view sport hunting as the principal basis for protection of wildlife.

While over-hunting, particularly illegal poaching, remains a serious threat to certain species, for the future, it is globally less important than other factors mentioned next

Habitat loss, degradation, fragmentation
Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation are important causes of known extinctions. As deforestation proceeds in tropical forests, this promises to become the main cause of mass extinctions caused by human activity.

All species have specific food and habitat needs. The more specific these needs and localized the habitat, the greater the vulnerability of species to loss of habitat to agricultural land, livestock, roads and cities. In the future, the only species that survive are likely to be those whose habitats are highly protected, or whose habitat corresponds to the degraded state associated with human activity (human commensals).

Habitat damage, especially the conversion of forested land to agriculture (and, often, subsequent abandonment as marginal land), has a long human history. It began in China about 4,000 years ago, was largely completed in Europe by about 400 years ago, and swept across the US over the past 200 years or so. Viewed in this historical context, we are now mopping up the last forests of the Pacific Northwest.

Thinking Point
The destruction of tropical rainforests in economically developing countries may well have serious worldwide ramifications (e.g., loss of species, global warming). How might foreign policy in first world nations be guided to support economic growth in rainforest states while fostering a sustainable environment?

In the New World tropics, lowland, seasonal, deciduous forests began to disappear after 1500 with Spanish and Portuguese colonization of the New World. These were the forested regions most easily converted to agriculture, and with a more welcoming climate. The more forbidding, tropical humid forests came under attack mainly in twentieth century, under the combined influences of population growth, inequitable land and income distribution, and development policies that targeted rain forests as the new frontier to colonize.

Tropical forests are so important because they harbor at least 50 percent, and perhaps more, of the world's biodiversity. Direct observations, reinforced by satellite data, document that these forests are declining. The original extent of tropical rain forests was 15 million square km. Now there remains about 7.5-8 million square km, so half is gone. The current rate of loss is estimated at near 2 percent annually (100,000 square km destroyed, another 100,000 square km degraded). While there is uncertainty regarding the rate of loss, and what it will be in future, the likelihood is that tropical forests will be reduced to 10-25 percent of their original extent by late twenty-first century.

Habitat fragmentation is a further aspect of habitat loss that often goes unrecognized. The forest, meadow, or other habitat that remains generally is in small, isolated bits rather than in large, intact units. Each is a tiny island that can at best maintain a very small population. Environmental fluctuations, disease, and other chance factors make such small isolates highly vulnerable to extinction. Any species that requires a large home range, such as a grizzly bear, will not survive if the area is too small. Finally, we know that small land units are strongly affected by their surroundings, in terms of climate, dispersing species, etc. As a consequence, the ecology of a small isolate may differ from that of a similar ecosystem on a larger scale.

For the future, habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation combined is the single most important factor in the projected extinction crisis

Environmental Degradation
Humans aren't the only species that suffer the ill effects of pollution. Pollutants are pervasive; even in the Arctic, high levels of DDT are found in marine mammals, affecting their ability to reproduce. Ozone pollution from the Ohio Valley is damaging trees in the southern Appalachian Mountains, while acid rain (and now "mercury rain") continues to plague the lakes and forests of the upper Midwest, the Adirondacks, Ontario, and New England. Weakened immune systems and failure to reproduce are common effects of toxic pollution on a wide array of species. In some cases, pollution from silt and nutrients chokes the life out of aquatic ecosystems, while in other cases physical barriers, such as dams, prevent native fish species from reproducing.

Biodiversity of India
Wetlands, Forests, Marine Environment, Species Diversity, Endemic Species and Threatened Species
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Hot spots in India
Hot spots are areas that are extremely rich in species, have high endemism, and are under constant threat. Among the 25 hot spots of the world, two are found in India extending into neighbouring countries - the Western Ghats/Sri Lanka and the Indo-Burma region (covering the Eastern Himalayas). These areas are particularly rich in floral wealth and endemism, not only in flowering plants but also in reptiles, amphibians, swallow-tailed butterflies, and some mammals

Eastern Himalayas
Phytogeographically, the Eastern Himalayas form a distinct floral region. The area comprises Nepal, Bhutan, and neighbouring states of northern India, along with a continuous sector of the Yunnan province in southwest China. Although all Himalayan forests lie well north of the Tropic of Cancer, and some of them are at altitudes of 1780 to 3500 metres (rather akin to temperate forests in physiognomy and structure), they can be considered tropical forests since they occur largely within the climatic tropics.

• The Eastern Himalayas display an ultra-varied topography, a factor that fosters species diversity and endemism. Many deep and semi-isolated valleys are exceptionally rich in endemic plant species.
• In Sikkim, in an area of 7298 km2, of the 4250 plant species, 2550 (60%) are endemic . In India's sector of the area, there are about 5800 plant species, of which roughly 2000 (36%) are endemic.
• In Nepal, there are around 7000 plant species, many of which overlap with those of India, Bhutan, and even Yunnan. Of these species, at least 500 (almost 8%) are believed to be endemic to Nepal.
• Bhutan possesses an estimated 5000 species, of which as many as 750 (15%) are considered to be endemic to the Eastern Himalayas.

Characteristic Floristic Elements
It is believed that forest cover in the Eastern Himalayas has dwindled from 340,000 km2, to 110,000 km2, with a mere 53,000 km2 of primary forests. Despite this loss, the north-eastern region is home to some botanical rarities. One of these is the Sapria himalayana, a parasitic angiosperm that has been sighted only twice since 1836.

This region is the meeting ground of the Indo-Malayan and Indo-Chinese biogeographical realms as well as the Himalayan and Peninsular Indian elements, formed when the peninsular plate struck against the Asian landmass, after it broke off from Gondwana land.

The numerous primitive angiosperm families found in this region include Magnoliaceae, Degeneriaceae, Himantandraceae, Eupomatiaceae, Winteraceae, Trochodendraceae, Tetracentraceae, and Lardizalbaleaceae. The primitive genera are Alnus, Aspidocarya Betula, Decaisnea, Euptelea, Exbucklandia, Haematocarpus, Holboellia, Houttuynia, Magnolia, Mangelietia, Pycnarrhena, and Tetracentrol (Malhotra and Hajra. 1977).

Studies have shown that north-east India along with the contiguous region of the Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Schezwan is an active centre of organic evolution and is the cradle of flowering plants.

This has now been confirmed by studies in south-east China where an altogether new large mammal (Muntiacus gongshanensis) and four new genera of flowering plants (Xizangia, Sinoleontopodium, Sindoxa, and Tetradoxa) have been discovered (Myers. 1988).

The endemism of Indian biodiversity is high. About 33% of the country's recorded flora are endemic to the country and are concentrated mainly in the North-East, Western Ghats, North-West Himalaya and the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Of the 49,219 plant species, 5150 are endemic and distributed into 141 genera under 47 families corresponding to about 30% of the world's recorded flora, which means 30% of the world's recorded flora are endemic to India. Of these endemic species, 3,500 are found in the Himalayas and adjoining regions and 1600 in the Western Ghats alone. About 62% of the known amphibian species are endemic with the majority occurring in the Western Ghats. Nearly 50% of the lizards of India are endemic with a high degree of endemicity in the Western Ghats (Table: Endemic species of animals). India is a centre of crop diversity - the homeland of 167 cultivated species and 320 wild relatives of crop plants.

Western Ghats
Of India's 49,219 plant species, 1600 endemics (40% of the total number of endemics) are found in a 17,000 km2 strip of forest along the seaward side of the Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala (WCMC. 1992). Forest tracts up to 500 metres in elevation, comprising one-fifth of the entire forest expanse, are mostly evergreen, while those in the 500-1500 metres range are semi-evergreen. There are two main centres of diversity, the Agastyamalai Hills and the Silent Valley/New Amambalam Reserve basin (Myers. 1988).

Floral and faunal commonality of India's two hot spots
Although the two areas (the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats) are today disjunct and have their own characteristic flora and fauna, there are a number of species common to both.

Common floral species include Ternstroemia japonica, Rhododendron arboreum, Hypericum hookerianum, Thalictrum javanicum, Cotoneaster buxifolia, Parnassia wightiana, Lonicera ligustrina, Gaultheria fragrantissima, and Symplocos lauriana.

Amongst fauna, the Himalayan and Nilgiri Tahr, the Nilgiri Pine Marten, the Laughing Thrush (associated with the plant genus Rubus), the Great Pied Hornbill (Bicornis homrai), the Frogmouth (Batrachostomus hodgsoni hodgsoni) the Fairy Blue Bird (Irena puella), Lizard Hawks (Accipter spp.), and the Rufous Bellied Hawk-Eagle (Lophotriorchis kienerii) are found in both regions

A plausible explanation for the presence of common species in the otherwise distinct regions is that they are both Pleistocene relicts. During Pleistocene glaciation, temperate flora and fauna moved south. On retreat of the glaciation, temperate relicts were left at higher altitudes of the southern mountains and continuous distribution between north-east and south-west India was lost after the Pleistocene glaciation.

According to (Hora. 1949), there also is a resemblance in the fish fauna of the two areas. The advanced Satpura hypothesis had envisaged movement of Assam flora and fauna through the Satpura System to the Western Ghats. Others, however, feel that any resemblance between the two is due to convergent evolution.

Be that as it may, the fact remains that the flora and fauna of the two regions have some degree of commonality. The common genera listed above need detailed genetic study including fingerprinting to conclusively establish the relationship between the two groups of disjunct biota in space and time.

Protected Areas Network : Development and History
The protection of wildlife has a long tradition in Indian history. Wise use of natural resources was a prerequisite for many hunter-gatherer societies which date back to at least 6000 BC. Extensive clearance of forests accompanied the advance of agricultural and pastoral societies in subsequent millennia, but an awareness of the need for ecological prudence emerged and many so-called pagan nature conservation practices were retained. As more and more land became settled or cultivated, so these hunting reserves increasingly became refuges for wildlife. Many of these reserves were subsequently declared as national parks or sanctuaries, mostly after Independence in 1947. Examples include Gir in Gujarat, Dachigam in Jammu & Kashmir, Bandipur in Karnataka, Eravikulum in Kerala, Madhav (now Shivpuri) in Madhya Pradesh, Simlipal in Orissa, and Keoladeo, Ranthambore and Sariska in Rajasthan.

Wildlife, together with forestry, has traditionally been managed under a single administrative organisation within the forest departments of each state or union territory, with the role of central government being mainly advisory. There have been two recent developments. First, the Wildlife (Protection) Act has provided for the creation of posts of chief wildlife wardens and wildlife wardens in the states to exercise statutory powers under the Act. Under this Act, it is also mandatory for the states to set up state wildlife advisory boards. Secondly the inclusion of protection of wild animals and birds in the concurrent list of the constitution, has proved the union with some legislative control over the states in the conservation of wildlife (Pillai, 1982). The situation has since improved, all states and union territories with national parks or sanctuaries having set up wildlife wings.

The adoption of a National Policy for Wildlife Conservation in 1970 and the enactment of the Wildlife (Protection) Act in 1972 lead to a significant growth in the protected areas network, from 5 national parks and 60 sanctuaries to 69 and 410 respectively, in 1990 (Panwar, 1990). The complete United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas for India (1993) is given in Appendix 8. These protected areas, shown in Figure 8, are distributed throughout mainland India and its islands.

The network was further strengthened by a number of national conservation projects, notably Project Tiger, initiated in April 1973 by the Government of India with support from WWF (IBWL, 1972; Panwar, 1982), and the crocodile Breeding and Management Project, launched on 1 April, 1975 with technical assistance from UNDP/FAO (Bustard, 1982).

Protected Areas of the Western Ghats
The Western Ghats are a chain of highlands running along the western edge of the Indian subcontinent, from Bombay south to the southern tip of the peninsula, through the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Covering an estimated area of 159,000 sq. km, the Western Ghats are an area of exceptional biological diversity and conservation interest, and are "one of the major Tropical Evergreen Forest regions in India" (Rodgers and Panwar, 1988). As the zone has already lost a large part of its original forest cover (although timber extraction from the evergreen reserve forests in Kerala and Karnataka has now been halted) it must rank as a region of great conservation concern. The small remaining extent of natural forest, coupled with exceptional biological richness and ever increasing levels of threat (agriculture, reservoir flooding plantations, logging and over exploitation), are factors which necessitate major conservation inputs."

There are currently seven national parks in the Western Ghats with a total area of 2,073 sq. km (equivalent to 1.3% of the region) and 39 wildlife sanctuaries covering an area of about 13,862 sq. km (8.1%).

The management status of the wildlife sanctuaries in this part of India varies enormously. Tamil Nadu's Nilgiri wildlife sanctuary, for example, has no human inhabitants, small abandoned plantation areas and no produce exploitation, while the Parambikulam wildlife sanctuary in Kerala includes considerable areas of commercial plantations and privately owned estates with heavy resource exploitation.

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, the first international regulatory framework for safe transfer, handling and use of living Modified Organisms (LMOs) was negotiated under the aegis of the convention on the Convention on Biological Diversity.

The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. It establishes an Advance Informed Agreement (AIA) procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory. It further incorporates procedure for import of LMOs with respect to Food Feed and Product (FFP), Risk Assessment and Risk Management Framework and Capacity Building.

The protocol contains reference to a precautionary approach. The protocol also establishes a Biosafety Clearing House to facilitate the exchange of information on living modified organisms and to assist countries in the implementation of the protocol.

The protocol was adopted on 29th January, 2000. The protocol has been signed by 103 countries (except USA). India signed the Biosafety Protocol on 23rd January, 2001 and acceded to the Protocol on 17th January, 2003. The protocol has come into force on 11th September, 2003, so far 84 countries have ratified the protocol.

Biodiversity conservation : Key issues and approaches
Ecological degradation and its corollary - biodiversity loss - pose a serious threat to development. 'Ecologically destructive economic activities are inefficient not merely because of the resulting resource misallocation but also because of the (excessive) scale of activity levels; excessive in relation to the limited availability of natural capital when the latter is complementary to human-made capital' (Foy and Daly. 1989). In order to bring about sustainable resource conservation and management, it is essential to adopt several different approaches for managing our forests and biodiversity
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Importance of Agricultural Biodiversity : Biodiversity provides not only food and incomnes, breeding new e but also raw materials for clothing, shelter, medicivarieties, and performs other services such as maintenance of soil fertility and biota, and soil and water conservation, all of which are essential to human survival. Nearly one third of the world's land area is used for food production. The following dimensions of agricultural biodiversity can be identified: Read More

Importance of Dry and Sub-humid Lands Biodiversity
Dry and sub-humid lands are home to over 2 billion people, or around 35% of the global population. These lands have great biological value and are home to many of the world’s food crops and livestock. About 70 percent of Africa depends directly on them for their daily livelihoods. Read More

Importance of Island water biodiversity : Islands are home to an extraordinary number of endemic species per unit of surface area and unique ecosystems. However, the same level of richness finds its counterpart in its fragility. Their biodiversity richness provides goods and services in support of economic development; thus, threats to island environments have direct and indirect consequences on their whole social and economic systems. Read More

Mountain Biodiversity
Mountain environments cover some 27 per cent of the world’s land surface, and directly support the 22 per cent of the world’s people who live within mountain regions. Lowland people also depend on mountain environments for a wide range of goods and services, including water, energy, timber, biodiversity maintenance, and opportunities for recreation and spiritual renewal. Mountains provide for the freshwater needs of more than half of humanity, and are, in effect, the water towers of the world.
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Biodiversity: Government Interventions

Indian government initiative for protecting biodiversity
To address the problems of environment and development holistically, the Ministry has enunciated several policy instruments, which takes into consideration various cross-sectoral issues having a direct bearing on conservation and sustainable uses of natural resources including forestry and wildlife.

Biosphere Reserves
Biosphere Reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems which are internationally recognized within the framework of UNESCO's Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. These reserves are required to meet a minimal set of criteria and adhere to a minimal set of conditions before being admitted to the World Network of Biosphere Reserve designated by UNESCO for inclusion in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. The world's major ecosystem types and landscapes are represented in this network, which is devoted to conserving biological diversity, promoting research and monitoring as well as seeking to provide models of sustainable development in the service of humankind.

These reserves are rich in biological and cultural diversity and encompass unique features of exceptionally pristine nature. The goal is to facilitate conservation of representative landscapes and their immense biological diversity and cultural heritage, foster economic and human development which is culturally and ecologically sustainable and to provide support for research, monitoring, education and information exchange. The scheme is a pioneering effort at pursuing the increasingly difficult yet urgent task of conserving ecological diversity under mounting pressures.

The thirteen Biosphere Reserves set up in the country so far not only aim to protect representative ecosystem, but also serve as laboratories for evolving alternative models of development. The Ministry provided financial assistance to the respective State Governments for conservation and management of these Biosphere Reserves. Research and development projects were also supported. On the basis of the proposal submitted by this Ministry to the International Coordinating Council (ICC) of Man and Biosphere Reserve (MAB) Programme of UNESCO, three Biosphere Reserves; Sunderban (West Bengal), Mannar (Tamil Nadu) and Nilgiri (Tamil Nadu) have been included in the International Network of Biosphere Reserves. Efforts are on for getting other Biosphere Reserves included in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. This facilitates international recognition and attracts additional funding in these sites.

The Ministry provided financial support to the respective State Governments for management interventions in the buffer zones of these biosphere reserves based on the recommendations of the Indian National MAB Committee.

List of operational Biosphere Reserves in the country

Source: Annual Report 2003-2004 , Government of India, Ministry of Environment & Forests

Conservation and Management of Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral Reefs : Wetlands

Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic system where the water table is usually or near the water surface and land is covered by shallow water. They are life support systems for people living around and are effective in flood control, waste water treatment, reducing sediment, recharging of aquifers and also winter resort for variety of birds for shelter and breeding and provide a suitable habitat for fish and other flora and fauna. They also act as buffer against the devastating effect of hurricanes and cyclones, stabilize the shore-line and act as bulwark against the encroachment by the sea and check soil erosion. Apart from that, they are valuable for their educational and scientific interest and provide durable timber, fuelwood, protein rich fodder for cattle, edible fruits, vegetables and traditional medicines.

Identification of wetlands can be attributed to the following three main factors, viz. -

When an area is permanently or periodically inundated
When an area supports hydrophytic vegetation
When an area has hydric soils that are saturated or flooded for a sufficiently long period to become anaerobic in the upper layers.

On these criteria, Ramsar Convention defines wetlands as areas of marsh or fen, peat-land or water, whether artificial or natural, permanent or temporary, with the water that is stastic or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meter. Mangroves, corals, estuaries, bays, creeks, flood plains, sea grasses, lakes etc are covered under this definition. National Bio-diversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP)

A comprehensive project with the financial support of UNDP-GEF was launched for producing a series of planning documents relating to ecological security and livelihood of people most dependent on natural resources. The ultimate aim is to develop a national plan for conservation of biodiversity and its sustainable use. A consultative and participatory approach was adopted by all the executing agencies. A draft National Action Plan (NAP) has been prepared and circulated to more than 500 experts and organisations for comments. The comments received were suitably incorporated and the report revised.

A meeting of the Steering Committee under the Chairmanship of Secretary (E&F) was held on January 29, 2004 in which the submission of the draft NAP report to the Ministry was recommended. The Ministry, based on this draft NAP, shall seek competent approval for a possible National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan in line with the National Environment Policy which is under formulation.

Biological Diversity Act, 2002
A National Biodiversity Authority has been set up at Chennai vide Gazette Notification dated October 1, 2003 under the Act. The Act also provides for establishment of State level Boards and Local level Biodiversity Management Committees to deal with any matter concerning conservation of biological Diversity, its sustainable use and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of Biological resources and associated knowledge. Detailed rules under the Act have been notified in Gazette on April 15, 2004

International Programmes and Conventions
India participates with many international agreements and programmes concerned with aspects of nature conservation and sustainable development. These range from legal instruments such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, which place obligations on those nations which become contracting parties, to scientific programmes such as the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme, a global programme of international scientific cooperation.

Examples of agreements and programmes with which India is collaborating include:

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
Since India became a party to CITES on 18th October 1976 it has provided data annually to the CITES secretariat on the trade of endangered species through its CITES Management Authority. The text of the CITES convention along with the CITES appendices are provided.

World Heritage Convention
India ratified the World Heritage Convention in 1977 and since then five natural sites have been inscribed as areas of 'outstanding universal value'.
These sites are

• Kaziranga National Park
• Keoladeo National Park
• Manas National Park
• Sundarbans National Park
• Nanda Devi
• National Park Convention on Biological Diversity

India signed the Convention on Biological Diversity on 5th June 1992, ratified it on 18th February 1994 and brought it into force on 19th May 1994. This convention will provide a framework for the sustainable management and conservation of India's natural resources.

Ramsar (Wetlands) Convention

India has been a contracted party to the Ramsar Convention since 1st February 1982. India has now six sites covering some 192,973 hectares of important wetlands.

These sites are

• Chilka Lake
• Keoladeo National Park
• Wular Lake
• Harike Lake
• Loktak Lake
• Sambhar Lake

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Biodiversity : NGO Interventions

CEE : Biodiversity Conservation
Conservation of biodiversity has always been an objective of environment education. CEE has expertise in and has done a wide range of activities in this area. It coordinated the ‘Education, Awareness and Training' Thematic Working Group of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Several of its Ecodevelopment Programmes looked at biodiversity conservation as a major thrust.
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WPSI : Effects of Forest Resource Extraction on Biodiversity Conservation Values
Sariska Tiger Reserve lies in the Aravalli Hills of the western state of Rajasthan. With the extinction of Caspian tiger, Sariska is now the westernmost limit of the tiger’s global range. The Reserve has one of the few remnants of the diverse flora and fauna of the Aravalli Hills. Unfortunately, like most other sites in the area, Sariska is facing heavy pressure due to the extraction of forest produce.
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BNHS : Environmental Impact Assessment Cell
The Environmental Impact Assessment Cell (EIA Cell), established in 1993, is now fully functional with a fine record of assignments for growing industry and development infrastructure in ecologically sensitive areas.
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The Humanity
"Biodiversity Conservation of wide range reserve forest area of Khaprakhol Block of Bolangir District through strengthening of local institution building process and development of sustainable forest based livelihood with involvement of the community and SHGs " Grant Amount : Rs. 12,00,000
Project involves activities for formation of SHG Cooperatives, Orientation training of Cooperatives. It has a objective of Processing and marketing of oil seeds items like Mahua seeds, Kusum seeds, Jarda seeds, Harida seeds, Karanj Seeds, Neem seeds, Amla seeds and ground nut, herbal species will be undertaken to provide livelihood support to the women groups. Developing herbal garden in 8 High School Campus to make the student aware on Biodiversity and use of herbal medicine, Documentation of traditional herbs/ plants which are on the verge of extinction, Participatory village ecosystem planning.

VIKSAT- Vikram Sarabhai Centre for Development Interaction
“Biodiversity Conservation through Enhancing Capacities of Local Communities”
The project is deal with the integrated biodiversity management programme. The emphasis is given to encourage restoration of ecological balance in the selected villages through sustained community action for the development of the potential natural resources in the area. Easy and affordable technological solutions and institutional arrangements. It also incorporates the economic development of the village community through optimum utilization of the natural resources like land, water, vegetation etc. to mitigate the adverse effects of droughts and prevent further ecological degradation and to link the livelihood systems of the local community to the regeneration of the resources also integrate the research activity on various socio-ecological processes for biodiversity conservation.

Enhancing Capacities and Capabilities of Local Communities for Biodiversity Conservation The project was implemented in the villages of Sabarkantha and Mahesana Districts in partnership with the Small Grants Programme of UNDP/GEF. The project objectives were met completely through activities planned as per YPO prepared. The final report for the entire project duration of 18 months (July 2001- December 2002) submitted to the funding agency.

Prominent reasons for decline in the cultivation of traditional crop and fodder varieties were as following:
Increased orientation towards the cash crops;
Cultivation of high yielding varieties to satisfy increased demand for food;
Lack of suitable microhabitat required for the growth and the survival;
Loss of confidence among farmers to grow rare crop species;
Lack of awareness among farmers on the importance of characteristics such as;
nutritional value, drought resistance, disease resistance etc,
and Lack of incentives for the cultivation of traditional crop and fodder varieties were more prominent.
Farmers have switched their diet from traditional cultivated cereals to more wheat-based diet.

Programs conducted for enhancing local capacities in biodiversity conservation are given below:
Awareness programs for teachers and students
Informal discussions with farmers
Biodiversity posters, quiz / contests for students
Biodiversity - Orientation cum training program at VIKSAT
Nature education camp
Celebration of Wildlife Week (October 2-7) and World Environment Day (June 5)
Awareness through village rallies
Exposure visit of local farmers to Gujarat University, Anand Exposure cum training programs for the traditional healers at - ADS, Kashele
Through documentation of community conservation areas and sacred groves District level interactive sessions
Medicinal plant excursions trek
Village meetings / gatherings
Community excursions and documentation of village biodiversity
Contests on uncommon food items
Training program on marketing potential and sustainable harvest of non timber forest produce
Discussions with village level institutions
Training in nursery raising, biological pest control and sustainable agriculture

RANWA, Pune (Maharashtra, India), an NGO established in 1993 by a group of nature enthusiasts in Pune, is involved in diversified activities related to Environment Protection, Conservation, Education and Research.
Vision : RANWA (Research and Action in Natural Wealth Administration) is a small NGO (Non governmental i.e. voluntary organisation, VA) Registered as a Public Charitable Trust at Pune. Its objectives include environmental research, education and activism. RANWA consists primarily of youngsters, including those now learning at other states or abroad. RANWA membership is open to anyone frequently participating or leading its programmes. Members communicate through phone, email, webgroup, newspaper announcements and nature trails. RANWA office maintains a small nature library. Funds, about Rs. 50,000/- per annum, are raised mainly from research grants.

Programme Interventions
Education: Nature trails for general public and school children alike for introduce them to nature, especially plants, birds and butterflies.
Research: Documentation of plants, animals and human influence in Maharashtra, especially western region, particularly Pune district.
Action: Plantation of local plant species, supporting environmental agitation, awareness campaigns.
Urban nature education : Garden Splendour - experts familiarizing citizens about garden bounty. Cities host majority of literate naturalists, who spend resources to search remote forests, ignoring wildlife in the backyards! However, without preparing legally respectable publications or mass movement, they only lament against destruction of urban biota by unscrupulous urban development. To gradually change this trend and build public opinion, RANWA conducts weekend nature trails termed ` Nisarga parichya' i.e. `Know the Nature'. Dr. Ajay Dixit, and experts including botanist Dr. S. D. Mahajan or wildlifer Prof. Sanjeev Nalawade lead the show once or twice a month. These stalwarts guide over two dozen enthusiastic participants to common and interesting plants and animals from in and around Pune. This includes hills like Law College, Parvati and botanical gardens like Fergusson Collge, Pune University etc. Several students especially from Garware and Modern colleges, besides Pune University participate enthusiastically and even guide others about ants, fishes, snails and mushrooms.
Trek & study nature along reforesting hillocks for personal & urban health. Earlier, RANWA members inclduing Ketan Latkar, Anand Gijare, Rahul Khalate conducted several indoor training programmes at Balbhavan, Balshikshan, Kataria and other schools. The focus then was on slide shows, talks and snake handling shows. RANWA had conducted several nature education camps at remote places like Bhimashankar, Dandeli, Annamalai in the Western Ghats. Participants were introduced to plants, animals like birds, mammals, snakes and lizards, butterflies etc. Participantion to such camps and trails is open to all, benefiting diverse people with varied age class, sex and educational/ professional background. However, to generate local action, focus on local education has been increased recently.
Monitoring forest health : Yogesh Gokhale and colleagues found out that the forest biomass has doubled during last six decades and no species have been lost at Mahabaleshwar and Bhimashankar forests near Pune. This became evident from the records of the forest department, which included 5 yearly girth measurements of all the trees in preservation plots about an acre in size. The forest growth was prompted by abandonment of shifting cultivation and departmental felling, forces that restricted these forests earlier. However, in forests subjected to firewood extraction for tourists suffer from regeneration failure, unlike those harvested for the use of only the local people.
Atlas of Maharshtra Bio Diversity : Utkarsh Ghate, Shonil Bhagwat, Vivek Gour Broome and Yogesh Gokhale recorded distribution of nearly 600 woody plants in the state, particularly Vidarbha and Western Ghats, based on study visits and literature survey under the Biodiversity Hotspots Conservation Programme (BHCP) of World-wide Fund for Nature-India (WWF-I) and flexible grant from the Max Muller Bhavan. This helped in suggesting to the Forest Department areas for conserving more or unique diversity within limited efforts. This includes Bhamragad- the south-eastern corner of Vidarbha, recently declared a wildlife sanctuary. Ongoing work includes upload this information on web including in the form of an atlas and bibliography, besides similar information generated by Sanjeev Nalawade about vertebrate fauna of Maharashtra, with initial assistance from Econet.
Sacred forests and trees : India has a long tradition of conserving forests by dedicating to deities. Utkarsh Ghate studied such sacred groves in Western Maharashtra for Forest Department. Through the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritisation Project (BCPP) of WWF-I Yogesh Gokhale studied those allover the country where they continue despite manifold pressures today. Yogesh is involved in translating his experiences into a live demonstration project under a Central Government scheme. Recently, Shonil Bhagwat studied plant and animal diversity of sacred groves in the Kodagu district in southern Western Ghats. Protected from centuries, Sacred groves often host the oldest, largest, rarest trees from an area as well as many birds, mammals rare outside.
Fig trees, considered sacred, critically support animals, by yielding fleshy fruits all the year. Commonest fig trees like Banyan, Peepal etc., are worshipped and protected by people. Utkarsh Ghate has studied distribution of these keystone species in the Western Ghats with suggestions for their conservation.
Shonil Bhagwat had also studied biosphere reserves under the BCPP for evaluating and suggesting conservation efforts friendly to people and development. Ongoing work includes exposition of the value these traditional conservation methods by Utkarsh Ghate to managers of formal protected area (PA) system that has largely triggered resource conflicts between villagers, government and industries.
People's biodiversity register : To further the human-nature relationship, Yogesh Gokhale and colleagues have pioneered recording of folk knowledge and practices of conservation of biodiversity, beginning with Supegaon in Phansad wildlife sanctuary, Raigad district. Such people's biodiversity registers have now become popular allover the country, as tool to stake people's claim of prior knowledge for sharing benefits from its commercial exploitation such as through Intellectual proprty rights (IPRs) amidst globalisation.
Conservation action : Earlier Ketan Latkar, Milind kothawade opposed reckless cutting of forest undergrowth in the Western Ghats, to prevent soil erosion. RANWA volunteers, notably Milind Kothawade, Utkarsh Ghate, Yogesh Gokhale, Shonil Bhagwat, Vivek Gour Broome, participated in struggle against unsustainable developmement projects such as the dams on river Narmada. RANWA helped in organising cycle rallies to spread anti-pollution message. Shantanu Dixit, Shashank Karekar, Milind kothawade, Bhushan Sathe earlier contributed greatly to collection and planting of trees and Bamboos along city gardens, hillocks and even in Mulshi taluk to help NGOs Vanrai and Jeevan. This included homestead nursury raising of seeds collected from roadside trees. Seeds were then also sold to BAIF (Bharatiya Agro Industries Foundation) to help RANWA corpus.
Currently, Ajay Dixit has been popularising planting of local trees, including seed distribution and nursery, contrasting exotic trees promoted by government, despite their low value to local animals. Raghunandan Welankar and Vivek Gour Broome cultivate traditional rice varieties on their farms.
Urban biota and ecosystems : Starting from its background of studying the traditional wisdom for the benefit of modern systems; RANWA has now stretched to other extreme, to cope up with latest issues such as urbanisation. RANWA has compiled a directory of plants and animals found in and around Pune city, first such detailed endeavor in India and perhaps globally. Information from the Pune urban area encompassing 1600 sq. km includes trees, frogs, fishes, butterflies, snakes, birds, mammals and even usually ignored creatures like ants and mushrooms! The focus is not just on listing of organisms but on their response to human impacts and suggestions for their conservation zones and measures given future habitat deterioration.
As a follow up of this extensive effort, RANWA is now focussing on intensive, small scale studies at National Defence Academy (NDA) hill forests, Pune University Campus, Pashan lake around Pune city, lead by Ankur Patwardhan and Kapil Sahastrabuddhe. The idea here is to highlight the ecological values of institutional campus such as University or Defense establishments for a broader appeal for their conservation. RANWA is also now buttressing the biological assessment of urban ecosystem with physico-chemical parameters. Spatially, RANWA is proposing to extend this ecosystem assessment to Pun-Mumbai belt, amongst the most urbanized zone in the country and even globe. RANWA expects to pool myriad naturalists and publicize their perceptions of ecological change and management recommendations, with focus on Pune and Khandala.

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Atree : Building biodiversity with young hands
Children, the future custodians of the biodiversity in the village, were shown the value of biodiversity in their backyard using pictorial audio visual aids in the local language. Enthusiastic children were grouped into a 'Green Brigade' who were actively involved in monitoring the saplings planted in community lands and also the birds found in the village ponds. An anti-plastics campaign has also been organized in the area with the participation of the Greeen Brigade. Source

Atree : A strategic action plan for the conservation of biological diversity in the Western Ghats.
Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) in the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu, is known for its rare plants and animal species. It is a totally protected forest, where no collection of forest products is allowed. KMTR can be divided into the wet forest at higher elevations and dry forests in the foot hills. It is from the dry forests that fuelwood and fodder are extracted by over 145 villages. These villages have varying levels of dependence on the forests, based on socio-economic structure, farming practices, and water availability. ATREE developed a conservation-intervention program to decrease this dependency of the people on the forests and build awareness about the biodiversity that is there in their back yard.
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Biodiversity : Corporate Interventions

HSBC : Sustainable Environmental Development
HSBC has also undertaken sponsorships of projects that are pioneering efforts in maintaining the biodiversity of ecosystems in India.

The Vellapatti Fisheries Project

Located in the Gulf of Mannar, this project is run by Worlwide Fund for Nature which is working towards international certification of fisheries for the first time in India. Certification of fisheries is aimed to have a two-pronged benefit by way of local fisher-folk getting international prices for their produce and also saving on margins by dealing directly with their international buyers.

Operation Kachhapa
This project is located on the coast of Orissa and aims to protect the endangered Olive Ridley turtle. HSBC is contributing to the Wildlife Protection Society to help raise awareness within the local community, to protect the Olive Ridley turtle and to ensure the preservation of its largest breeding site in Orissa.

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German Remedies : Eco-friendly Plants
German Remedies manufactures Oral Contraceptives for the Indian market at GRL Andheri plant, Mumbai. This plant is equipped with an energy intensive Air Handling system. This system makes the plant Eco-friendly. Due to the high potency of oral contraceptive hormones, the entire air inside the plant is filtered through filters fine enough to eliminate all traces of hormones and only then it is released to the environment outside. The airflow is so designed that none of it can escape outside bypassing the filteration process. These features were added to the plant in May 1996 under the guidance of GRL collaborators M/s. SCHERING AG.

The Oncology plant at Goa was set-up with the help of GRL's collaborators ASTA Medica. Further the air inside the plant is so circulated that no air can flow outside without passing through fine filters to eliminate all traces of drugs suspended in the air. Further, the effluent from the plant is pre-treated chemically to make it safe for the environment before sending it to the Effluent Treatment Plant. These are some of the important features of the plant that makes it environment friendly.

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Godrej Group : The Naoroji Godrej Center for Plant Research
Started in 1992, the Center is involved in basic and applied research in horticulture, pisiculture, sericulture, floriculture and preservation of endangered species. Beside this, it acquires land to conduct the above activities on and ties up with institution/individuals to successfully execute community projects. Its seven primary projects include the conservation of threatened plant species, development of an ideal village and mass propagation of medical plants. Years ago, Ardeshir acted in the true spirit of Swadeshi. Today, a 100 years later, Godrej recreates his vision for the years to come.

Environmental Concerns
We have been doing a lot of work for the environment out of the belief that if attention is not given to this aspect, all the other gains would be nullified.We have been associated with India's largest conservation NGO, WWF-India, through the late Mr. S.P. Godrej, who was its founder Trustee and President. The WWF-India Secretariat is housed at the Pirojsha Godrej National Conservation Centre (PGNCC), New Delhi, towards which we have already contributed a Crore and half rupees. The PGNCC was inaugurated on November 3, 1989 in New Delhi by the then President of India, Mr. R. Venkatraman, in the presence of Prince Philip, the Duke of Edinburgh and President of WWF--International.

We also strongly feel that Nature has blessed our country so richly in a number of ways. Yet, instead of being trustees of Nature, we have degraded our land to lower depths than many less fortunate countries. Our concerns for the wildlife too are well documented. We have been associated with TRAFFIC-India (Trade Record Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce), a division of WWF-India, which is responsible for monitoring and studying legal and illegal trade in wildlife and its derivatives, thus contributing to the enforcement aspects of bio-diversity conservation. Our contributions to the cause received a major fillip, when the late Chairman, Mr. S. P. Godrej was conferred with the WWF 25th Anniversary Benefactor "White Pelican" Award. We are also a member of the exclusive "1001: A Nature Trust", which is actively associated with preservation of nature, wildlife and the environment.

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Jaiprakash Hydropower Ltd : Animal Care

So far 54 main vetenary camps and 22 floow-up camps have been held treating nearly 140000 animals.

Animal Husbandry classes are being held to educate villagers in animal care.Over 100 villagers have been benefited.